|
In
the year 4374* (614) there lived in Medina, in Arabia, Mahomed ibn Abdallah,
descended from Keder, son of Ishmael (Gen. 25:13), who had taken possession of
Arabia and the neighbouring countries. Mahomed had two secret counsellors, who
assisted him in the construction of his new system of doctrines and belief;
these were Allman Mam Ali, of Jewish descent, and Turchman, a Christian; hence
it resulted that the Koran contains many rules bearing analogy to Jewish ideas,
for they were derived from Mam Ali.
* It is not easy to give the precise year
of the Chadjra (the flight of Mahomed), since all authorities are not agreed in
this respect. In general, the year of the text is assumed. In a Hebrew work, out
of which I have drawn largely, the year 4384 (621) is given. The Mahomedans
reckon this year 5605 (1845) as the 1261st of the Chadjra. If we now calculate
their years in general at 355 days, as they have no leap year, we shall have
only about 1226 solar years, which would give us the year 4379 (619 of the
Christian Era) as the year of the Chadjra.
Mahomed
had an astrologer at his court called Bucheran, who was a very great enemy of
the Jews, and urged the prophet constantly to persecute and exterminate them
entirely, so that Mahomed at length listened to the proposition, since he had
without this already a hatred towards them, because they had not aided him in
his campaigns according to his expectation; wherefore the whole Jewish
population under his rule, ran great danger of being entirely cut off. Rabbi
Shallum, son of the then Resh Gelutha, in Babel, perceiving this dreadful
predicament, went to Mahomed, and offering him his submission, friendship, and
services, endeavoured to enter with him into a friendly compact. Mahomed
accepted his proposition with pleasure, conceived a great affection for him, and
took his daughter, a handsome young girl, for wife; he made him also a general
in his army, and gave him the name of Abu Bachr al Chaliva al Zadik, literally:
The father of the maiden, the descendant of the righteous; this means, that of
all his wives, who were either widows or divorced women, this one was the only
one who had never been married before, and then she was the granddaughter of the
celebrated chief of the captivity; therefore, the descendant of the righteous.
This occurrence induced Mahomed to give up his terrible intention to destroy the
Jews in his country, and thus did Rabbi Shallum save his people.
Abu
Bachr and Aliman now resolved among themselves to remove the dangerous enemy of
the Jews, Bucheran. One evening Mahomed, Bucheran, Aliman, and Abu Bachr, were
drinking together; the latter two soon saw that Mahomed and the astrologer were
strongly intoxicated, and lay stretched out in a deep and profound sleep. Abu
Bachr thereupon drew the sword of Mahomed from its scabbard, cut off therewith
Bucharan's head, and put the bloody sword back into its receptacle, and both
then lay themselves down quietly near Mahomed to sleep. When Mahomed awoke and
saw his friend lying decapitated near him, he cried out in a fury: "This
terrible deed has been done by one of us three in our drunkenness!" Abu Bachr
thereupon said quite unconcernedly: "Let each one draw his sword, and he whose
weapon is stained with blood, must needs be the murderer!" They all drew their
swords, and that of Mahomed was completely dyed with fresh blood, which proved
thus clearly to his satisfaction that he had murdered his friend. He was greatly
grieved at this discovery; cursed and condemned the wine which was the cause of
this murder, and swore that he never would drink any more, and that also no one
should do so who wishes to enter heaven. This is the cause why wine is
prohibited to the Mahomedans.
At a
later period, Mahomed learned the whole transaction, and that his father-in-law
was the perpetrator of the bloody deed; wherefore, he lost his favour, and he
would not permit him to come before him. Abu Bachr went thereupon and conquered
sixty places, which had not yet submitted to Mahomed, and presented them to him,
through which means he became again reconciled to him, was received in favour,
and remained thereafter at court.
Mahomed
urged his conquests to the north and west; made war against Heraclius and his
son Constantine, captured the country around Antiochia, Armenia, a part of Asia
Minor (Anatolia), and Palestine. Jerusalem, however, continued in possession of
the Greeks. Mahomed reigned 11 years, and died in 4385 (625); he was succeeded
by his father-in-law, Abu Bachr, but he survived him but two years, when he also
died.
In
4387 (627), another father-in-law, Omar ibn Kataf, ascended the throne. In the
tenth year of his reign (4397) he appeared before Jerusalem with a large army.
He besieged it, and after producing great distress thereby in the city, it
surrendered to his arms. He then made a treaty with the Greek inhabitants of the
city, that they should pay him a ransom for their lives, and send an annual
tribute. He commanded to rebuild the temple, and appropriated several pieces of
ground, the proceeds of which were destined to defray the expenses and keep it
in repair, which is continued to be done to this day. He built, accordingly, the
great Mosque al Sachara [Dome of the Rock], of which I have spoken above. He also conquered the
whole country around Damascus and Ispahan, which is a part of Persia.
Egypt
was taken by his general Omar ibn Aleaz, as also the city of Alexandria, where
he burnt the celebrated library, through which learned posterity suffered an
irreparable loss. This conquest of Egypt put an end to the government of the
Mameluks, and it came under the rule of the Califs, and so it remained till the
country was conquered by the Tartars in 4502 (742). In 4400 (640), Omar built
the present al Mazr and called it Al Kairo, which means, "care, pains,
sorrow;" since this building cost him much trouble, care, and labour. In the
town of Pastat, the ancient Zoar (for which see the Appendix), he prohibited and
prevented a terrible ancient custom, which was prevalent among the Greeks of
that place. They used, on the day when the Nile begins to rise, to take a
handsome young woman, to dress her in the most costly and brilliant attire, to
lead her to the river under accompaniment of music and dancing, and then to
throw her into the water; since, according to their opinion, the Nile would, in
reward for this beautiful sacrifice, rise higher and higher, and scatter its
rich blessings over the land. Omar reigned 15 years.
In
the year 4402 (642), Osman (or Othman) ibn Afan assumed the government. He was a
son-in-law of Mahomed. In the year 4406 (646), he took the island of Rhodes, and
in 4413 (603) the island of Cyprus, from the Greeks.
In
4413 (653), the Calif Ali ibn Abu Talbih, also a son-in-law of Mahomed, who had
slain his predecessor Osman, succeeded to the throne. The Persians, and many
other Mahomedans, regard this Ali also as a prophet, equal to Mahomed. Even at
the present day there are two sects of Mahomedans; one is composed of those who
only believe in and acknowledge Mahomed as a prophet [Sunni], and the other of those who
ascribe the same honour to Ali [Shia]. These two sects always are inimical towards, and
persecute each other. In Syria and on the Lebanon there are likewise several Mahomedans who belong to the sect of Ali.--Under him the Mahomedans conquered
the whole of Anatolia, and penetrated as far as Africa and Spain. He was
succeeded, in 4419 (659), by his son, Calif Chazan ibn Ali.
Calif
Maevia ibn Sefian began his reign in 4434 (674). Under him there were constant
wars and contests among the great men of the state, concerning the califate, and
it was always doubtful whether he should be able to maintain himself on the
throne or not.
In
4435, Calif Abd al Maleki assumed the government. He made a treaty with the
Greek Emperor of Constantinople, Justinian II. He built the city of Ramla, and
several other towns in that neighbourhood. The district of Abu Gosh (see above,
Kirjath-Jearim), is to this day called Belad Beni Amaleki, perhaps in allusion
to this Calif. In his time, in 4459 (699), there ruled in Iraq and Babel yet
another Calif, Chadjadj ibn Jusif. Abd al Maleki was succeeded in 4467 (707) by
his son, Calif Walid I., ibn Abd al Maleki.
In
4502 (742), the country was invaded by innumerable hordes of Tartars, from the
vicinity of the Caspian Sea. They were called Turkemans ; hence the name of
Turks. These conquered the whole of Syria, Cappadocia, and Palestine, and caused
everywhere terrible devastations. The Arab Califs made war against them, and
drove them out of the country; they, however, came back a third time, as I shall
relate hereafter, till at length the Arabs and Turks became united, by the
latter assuming the Koran and the Mahomedan religion, and formed, as at this
day, but one nation, only that the former are called Arabs or Ishmaelites, and
constitute the greater portion of the inhabitants of Palestine; whilst of the
others, called Turks, but few are in our country, whereas in Turkey, in Europe,
the population is mostly composed of them.
In
4523 (763), there reigned the Calif Al Mansur, who built Bagdad, the modern
Babylon.
In
4546 (786), the Calif Harun al Rashid (i.e. the just) became ruler, and reigned
till 4569 (809). He completed the building of the city of Baghdad, commenced by
Al Mansur. In 4557 (797) there arose a terrible war between the Saracens and the
Arabic tribes in Palestine, through which means Gaza, Ashkelon, Sarifea
צריפין and Beth-Gubrin were entirely
destroyed.
In
4572 (812), the Mahomedans attacked and slew the ecclesiastical chiefs of the
Christians in Jerusalem.
In
the year 4573 (813), ruled Calif Almamans ibn Harun, until the year 4603 (843).
In
4628 (868), there reigned Sultan Ibn Achmad ibn Tulun over Egypt. In that year
the Tartaric hordes made another irruption, and conquered Palestine and Egypt.
Sultan Ibn Achmad had constant wars with them: he reigned till 4644 (884).
In
4729 (969), there reigned the Calif Ma'ez, of the Fatimite family. This name was
borne by the Califs of Kairuan, a country to the west of Egypt, in the
neighbourhood where Carthage formerly stood (see Appendix). He conquered Egypt,
Palestine, and Syria, and had his seat in Cairo (Al Mazr).
Calif Al Chakim, the third of the Fatimite family, became sovereign in the year 4756
(996). He was a great enemy to the Christians, and persecuted them everywhere.
In
the year 4776 (1016), he advanced with a large army against Jerusalem, and drove
away the Tartars, who yet occupied the same. He also destroyed totally the
church which Constantine had built over the socalled place of Jesus’s
sepulchre. His reign extended till 4781 (1021).
The
pilgrims who came from the west (Europe) to Palestine, and beheld these
persecutions, painted them in strong and glaring colours on their return to
their native countries, and moreover calumniated the Jews, as though these had
contributed much to produce the enmity and persecution of the Christians on the
part of Al Chakim. These and still other falsehoods and calumnies increased the
hatred and the persecution towards the Jews in European countries; and when at a
later period the pious crusaders from the west went eastward, to snatch
the Holy Land from the power of the Mahomedans, they found ample opportunity to
execute a pious and holy vengeance on these poor Israelites, as I shall relate
somewhat more circumstantially hereafter.
In
4781 (1021), his son Calif Dahir ibn Chakim became sovereign. He was a friend to
the Christians, and permitted them to rebuild their destroyed church.
In
4800 (1040), the Tartaric hordes made a third irruption under their leader
Seldjuk, who was of the tribe Hildokiao. This chief was uncommonly successful in
his conquests: he made war against the Egyptian Calif, and conquered Syria, and
Jerusalem with its environs. He bitterly persecuted the Christians in the Holy
City, and they had to endure terrible exactions, and were compelled to submit
entirely to his arbitrary will.
In
4859 (1099), the Arabs under the Egyptian Calif again acquired Jerusalem and the
surrounding country, and drove the Tartars away from there, and thought
themselves secure in possession of the city, when suddenly a new enemy came over
them, with whom they had to wage a long and bloody strife. This enemy was the
Europeans of the West, who in that very year entered the land of Palestine and
conquered it.
A
Short Review Of This Period.
There
exist but few documents concerning the situation of the Jewish literati and
literature in Palestine of this period. But at the time of Mahomed, the most
distinguished and learned person amongst the Jews, Rabbi Yizchak Ha-Gaon,
resided in Babylon. The title of Nahssi had at that time been given up for that
of Gaon.
In
4521 (761), there arose a serious contest in Babylon between the Resh Gelutha,
and the celebrated Rab Acha, of Shabecheh, the author of the She'elthoth
שאלתות through which cause the latter was
not chosen as Gaön, wherefore he quitted Babylon and repaired to Palestine,
where he ended his days.
In
4543 (733), there lived in Beth-Zur, a town not far from Hebron, a man by the
name of 'Anan ענן a scholar of the then
Gaon, Rabbi Yehudai,
of Babylon. He had observed in his scholar that he had neither affection for,
nor faith in our tradition as an exposition of the written law; wherefore he
('Anan) could not be chosen either as Resh Gelutha or Gaon. He returned,
therefore, to his native country, Palestine, and formed a new sect, the leader
of which he became, by openly preaching against our system of tradition. The
sect of the Sadducees, who only adopted the written law and rejected the
tradition, had gradually fallen entirely into decay after the destruction of the
temple and Jerusalem, and had become nearly dissolved. But the appearance of 'Anan gave them new life, and they soon increased and spread extensively in
Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa. In Palestine, they had yet another learned
chief, Sheich Abu al Ferag, who wrote a work, bearing his own name, concerning
the principles of his sect, and which contains much that is absurd and
blasphemous. He is the same Abu al Ferag who is frequently mentioned in the
Opinions of Maimonides תשובות
הרמב״ם. Anan had a wife who was called Al
Me'alma,
i. e. the learned, the instructress, who was acknowledged chief of his sect
after the death of her husband, and was consulted in all cases of doubt; and as
everything was decided according to her opinion and practice, it came to be
customary to ask among the sect, "How did Al Me'alma on that occasion? or what
was her practice in that case?" and every one looked up to her for guidance.
When, at a later period, Rabbi Joseph Ben Ali became Nahssi in Africa, he used
every effort to suppress this sect in all directions,--so that it was nearly
dissolved, and but few vestiges are found thereof at the present time; since all
that is left are the few Caraites קראים who only
acknowledge the written law, are partly descended from the ancient Sadducees,
and are found in several places in Asia and Egypt. We find mentioned in Abn
Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch, several ridiculous expositions of many
passages of Holy Writ ascribed to a certain Anan; it would, therefore, appear
that he also had composed a commentary on the books of Moses.
In
general the situation of the Jews, under the rule of the Mahomedans, was quite
favourable, and considerably better than under the Greeks, since the former are
naturally more favourably inclined to Judaism;--so that scarcely any
persecution took place in this whole period. Only when the Calif Omar ibn Kataf
banished, in the year 4398 (638), the Christians from Tiberias, the same fate
was soon meted out to the Jews, and they also had to quit this place.
History Index
|
